The following article by Paul Ajuwon on services for the blind and visually impaired in Nigeria appeared in our most recent newsletter: Development of Services for the Visually Impaired in Nigeria By Paul M. Ajuwon, Ph.D. Professor & Coordinator, Program in Blindness & Low Vision Dept. of Counseling, Leadership & Special Education, Missouri State University paulajuwon@missouristate.edu<mailto:paulajuwon@missouristate.edu> Geographical, social, and economic situations of Nigeria Nigeria, which is roughly twice the size of California is situated at the Bight of Benin on the coast of West Africa. Nigeria is often referred to as "The Giant of Africa," owing to its diverse population and economy. With approximately 182 million inhabitants (National Population Commission, 2017), Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa, and the seventh most populous in the world. Nigeria attained independence from Great Britain on October 1, 1960. As a multiethnic, multilingual nation, English is the official language of instruction in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. There are no precise data on the number of children and youth with visual impairment in Nigeria. However, data from a three-year survey indicate there are 4.25 million adults aged 40 and above who are visually impaired or blind in the country (Kyari et al., 2009). The main causes of visual impairment were identified as: refractive error, cataract, uncorrected aphakia, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, trachoma, road accidents, aging, etc. The number of persons with visual impairment is expected to rise significantly in the future, given the increase in the number of children, youth and adults who are unable to seek eye care, the inadequate number of eye care specialists, and rising poverty that prevents affected individuals from seeking appropriate intervention. Early formal education of the blind in Nigeria Similar to trends in most African countries, missionaries from Europe and North America were the first to introduce formal education of the blind in Nigeria. Mr. David Forbes, a Scottish missionary who came to northern Nigeria under the auspices of the Sudan United Mission (SUM) was credited with the pioneering effort to educate Milkatu Batu, a three-year-old blind girl whom he discovered in 1916 in the current Nasarawa State (Hill, 1985). At that time, the region was characterized by high prevalence of blindness, illiteracy and poverty (Audu, 1973). This successful initial effort culminated in the setting up of other special schools and the Open Education scheme for the blind in northern Nigeria and beyond (see Table 1). Date Name of Institution Founding Group 1916 Freed Slaves Home Sudan United Mission 1944 Sudan Interior Mission School for the Blind Sudan Interior Mission 1953 School for Blind Children, Gindiri Sudan Interior Mission 1960 Open Education Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind (RCSB) 1960 Training Center for the Blind American Baptist Mission 1960 Special Education Center at Oji River Church Missionary Society 1962 Pacelli School for Blind Children Lagos Roman Catholic Diocese/Government of Nigeria Today, there is at least one residential elementary school for the visually impaired in each of the 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The Open Education (mainstreamed) system, which G. Salisbury of the Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind introduced to Kaduna and Katsina provinces in 1959 (Salisbury, 1964) has not been widely embraced due, in part, to inadequate manpower, lack of funds, and parents' preference for residential education. Meanwhile, the thriving residential schools focus their curricula on compensatory skills such as braille reading and writing, typewriting, indigenous music, traditional dances, rudiments of O&M, basic assistive technology, adapted physical education, self-help skills, and home economics. In a sense, children who are blind in Nigeria are routinely exposed to the "Expanded Core Curriculum" right from the primary grades where the older girls and boys engage in daily chores like using the hand-broom to sweep the floor, assisting with preparing meals, dish-washing with the hands, hair braiding for the older girls, etc. under the supervision of the mainly sighted teachers and staff. Needless to say, the headmasters and headmistresses of these missionary-inspired institutions inculcate in the blind pupils their religious values, which are intended to prepare the blind students for academic and social life. The pupils are also taught public school subjects that are aligned to standards set by each state's ministry of education. As a result, in the final year of elementary education, the students sit for the National Primary School Examination. Over the years, successful pupils have been admitted into regular secondary schools - a practice now known as "inclusive education". This system has become a popular model of education beyond the residential setting, albeit poorly resourced (Ajuwon, 2008). In spite of the daunting challenges at the secondary level, a number of blind students have enrolled in universities within Nigeria. Currently, several of these graduates can be found in various walks of life in the country including, but not limited to: teaching, broadcasting, music, law, the civil service, mosque and church leadership, and self-employment. Adult Rehabilitation in Nigeria The training of adults who are visually impaired gained prominence in the 1950s, under a partnership between the colonial government, the Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind, and the Federal Nigeria Society for the Blind. The latter was formed in 1955 as the first major voluntary organization serving the blind in Nigeria. In 1959, the colonial government inaugurated the Nigeria National Advisory Council for the blind, with the mandate to look into the medical causes and treatment of various forms of blinding diseases, education and rehabilitation of affected persons, etc. Dr. George Ademola of the Lagos Ministry of Health was instrumental in setting up Farmcraft Centers for the blind, first in Ikeja, Lagos in 1957. His innovative training idea quickly spread to other provinces in the country (see Table 2). Date Training Center Founder 1950s Farmcraft Centers Lagos Ministry of Health/ Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind 1956 Vocational Training Centre (VTC) for the blind Federal Nigeria Society For The Blind Higher institutions and training challenges in Nigeria The University of Ibadan, Nigeria's premier university, launched the first teacher training program in blindness at the certificate level in 1974. Today, there is a total of 13 postsecondary institutions that prepare professionals at certificate, diploma and degree levels. The curricular offerings emphasize courses mainly in instruction of students with blindness and partial sight. However, practical courses like orientation and mobility, deaf-blindness, low vision, cortical visual impairment, and assistive technology are conspicuously absent or not well emphasized in their curricula. In spite of these shortcomings, the number of students with visual and other disabilities entering postsecondary institutions has increased by leaps and bounds. The absence of a Disability Resource Center on most campuses means that newly-admitted students with disabilities cannot access professional services to enhance their transition into their new environment, thereby impeding their effective integration into campus life. There is evidence to show that most-higher institutions lack up-to-date textbooks, journals and assistive technology devices that could improve teaching and learning. The way forward As we have seen, efforts to improve services for the visually impaired in Nigeria have developed at a gradual pace, and dominated to some degree by foreign Christian missionaries. Since 1960, there has been a plethora of policies related to special education and rehabilitation services, with the government quick to sign off on all international instruments and protocols related to the sector (Ajuwon, 2017). Unfortunately, these policies have remained mere rhetorical expressions, and lacking in the political will to implement them. Therefore, the recommendations that follow aim to address the pitfalls in special education and rehabilitation services in the country. First, there is need for a national database on blindness. This is required for effective planning and implementation of policies and programs. Second, appropriate funding must be legislated to stabilize policy implementation related to visual impairment and other disabilities in the 774 local government areas of the country. This point is even more urgent in this era of worldwide austerity. Third, if services are to be meaningful, it is imperative to empower consumers and their families. This implies discarding the notion of a charity-based model of service for one that recognizes the needs, wants and choices of consumers who are visually impaired and their families who do not have social safety net or respite care. Fourth, it is necessary to strengthen standards and curricula in all primary and secondary school programs dealing with visual impairment. This means extending in-service training opportunities to all the teachers and support staff working in the residential and inclusive settings. In this regard, the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired (AER) could encourage their members with proven expertise to assist with such training, as deemed appropriate. Finally, the government should collaborate with overseas professional organizations like the International Services and Global Issues Division of AER to provide continuous, quality training to students and lecturers in the 13 higher institutions that prepare specialist personnel. The focus of such collaboration should, among other things, include training in orientation and mobility, low vision, assistive technology, deaf-blindness, and cortical visual impairment. It is anticipated that such international, collaborative efforts will bring Nigeria's special education and rehabilitation services in line with evidence-based practices that will benefit consumers of all ages. References Ajuwon, P. M. (2017). Disabilities and disability service in Nigeria: Past, present, and future. In R. Hanes, I. Brown, & N. E. Hansen (Eds.), The Routledge History of Disability (pp. 133-150). London: Routledge. Ajuwon, P. M. (2008). Inclusive education in Nigeria: Benefits, challenges and policy implications. International Journal of Special Education, 23(3), 11-16. Ajuwon, P. M. (2012). Making inclusive education work in Nigeria: Evaluation of special educators' attitudes. Disability Studies Quarterly, 32(2). Retrieved from http://dsq-sds.org/article/view/3198/3069 Audu, J. (1973). The establishment and growth of SIM School for the Blind, Kano, from 1930s-1972 (Unpublished B.A. thesis). Zaria, Nigeria. Hill, K. E. (1985). Provision for the visually handicapped in Plateau State, Nigeria (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Birmingham, England. Kyari, F., Sivasubramaniam, S., Gudlavalleti, M. V. S., & Gilbert, C. E. (2009). Prevalence of blindness and visual impairment in Nigeria: The National Blindness and Visual Impairment Survey. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 50(5). DOI: 10.1167/iovs.08-3133 National Population Commission of Nigeria (2017). Nigeria's population now 182 million - NPC. Retrieved from http://population.gov.ng/nigerias-population-now-182-million-npc/ Salisbury, G. (1964). Open Education. In A. Taylor & F. H. Butcher (Eds.), Education of the Blind in Africa. (pp. 4-8) Ibadan, Nigeria: The Caxton Press Ltd. [Title: Signature of Kevin McCormack] Kevin McCormack, COMS Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist PhD Student in Global Inclusion and Social Development University of Massachusetts Boston [Title: COMS logo] [Title: UMass Boston logo]